COUNTRY
PROFILE - RUSSIA
1.
Physiography
The Russian Federation
is a large country in area, population, and economic potential. It is
located in the eastern part of Europe and in the northern part of Asia.
Its area totals 17075.4 thou km2 (45% of this area is covered by forests,
4% by water, 13% by agricultural lands, 19% by deer pastures, 19% by other
lands).
Russia is surrounded
by the seas, the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean (the
Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov) as well as by the Caspian
Sea. In the south, Russia borders with China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan,
and Georgia; in the west, it borders with Byelarus, the Ukraine and Baltic
states.
The flora and fauna
of Russia have zonal distribution. The following zones are clearly defined
from the north to the south: arctic, tundra, forest-tundra, forest, forest-steppe,
steppe, the semidesert with the desert zone being in the Caspian Sea area.
The Russian and Siberian
platforms represent the most ancient tectonic structures. Their foundation
is composed of metamorphic and crystalline rocks of Pre-Cambrian, which
are usually overlaid by a stratum of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks (shale,
limestone, sandstone, more seldom sand and clay). The surface layer of
the greater portion of the plains is formed by Quaternary loose deposits,
represented by clay, loam, and sand in the north and with loess-like loam
and loess in the south. The surface layer of piedmont troughs, intermontane
depressions and basins of the Central and Eastern Siberia is usually composed
of loose Neogene-Quaternary deposits (pebble, sand, loam, clay).
A large part of the
territory of Russia is within the limits of the temperate climatic belt.
The far north and northeast of Russia are located in the area of subarctic
and arctic zones. The monsoon climate is observed in the southern part
of the Far East (the Primorski Krai). The mean temperature of January
in the country varies from –1o to –50oC and that of July –
from +1o to 25oC. The yearly precipitation varies from 100 to 1000 mm.
Many areas of Siberia and the Far East feature permafrost, which covers
11 million km2, or 60% of the total area of Russia.
Three agroclimatic
belts can be broadly distinguished within the territory of Russia :
The cold belt located
in the wet tundra and northern taiga zones
The temperate belt
represented by the wet central and southern taiga zone as well as by the
slightly dry forest-steppe and northern steppe zones, by the southern
steppe and semidesert zones.
The warm belt covers
a insignificant portion of the Black Sea area in the south of the European
part of the country.
The large rivers in
the European part of Russia are Volga, Don (flowing to the south), Northern
Dvina (flowing to the north). The large rivers in the Asian part of Russia
are Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena (flowing to the north), Amur (flowing to
the east).
2. Land Resources
and Agriculture
Actual conditions
of agricultural lands and the vast territory of Russia are responsible
for the erroneous opinion of unlimited and inexhaustible land resources
of the country. The agricultural land area of Russia (206 million ha in
1997) involves: 124.5 million ha of arable lands, 18 million ha of hay
lands, and 55 million ha of lands under pastures.
During the transitional
period, considerable reduction of agricultural production was observed.
The volume of agricultural output dropped from 191.1 billion roubles in
the year 1991 to 131.2 billion roubles in the year 1996 (based on the
prices of the year 1991).
The agroecological
zoning of agricultural land area, carried out in 1996, revealed that 80%
of these needed reclamation improvements to reduce the impacts of adverse
natural and anthropogenic processes (water and wind erosion, overwetting
and waterlogging, salinization, etc.).
At the beginning of
transitional period the Comprehensive Federal Programme of Improving the
Fertility of Russian Soil was adapted for 1992-2000, however, this Programme
suffers from inadequate state-financing and lack of money with the farms.
The Federal Law on Governmental Regulation for providing Agricultural
Lands Fertility was adopted in 1998.
The Agricultural production
on January 1, 1998, with 28800 enterprises in Russia comprised 11200 thou
old collective and state-owned enterprises, and 17600 thou joint-stock
companies, partnerships and other enterprises. In 1997, there were also
274 thou peasant (individual) farms having 5.7% of sown area producing
7.5% of cereals, 1.2% of potatoes, 2.8% of vegetables, 2.9% of sugar beet,
14.2% of sunflower seeds and 2% of fodder crops. Their share in the total
crop output was 2%.
The sown areas and gross crop yields (1996) for all categories of farms
were as follows:
| Crop |
Sown
area (thou ha) |
Gross
crop yield (thou tons) |
| Grain
crops and legumes |
53390 |
69340 |
| Potatoes
and Vegetables |
4280 |
49380 |
| Sugar
beet |
1060 |
16170 |
| Sunflower
(seeds) |
3860 |
2765 |
| Soybeans |
480 |
280 |
| Fruits
and berries |
35600 |
3025 |
The consumption of
the basic agricultural products per capita in 1997 was noted to be: 117
kg of bread, 125 kg of potatoes, 75 kg of vegetables, 33 kg of sugar,
7.9 kg of vegetable oil, 31 kg of fruits and berries.
Land Reclamation
Development
During 1960s to 1980s,
the land reclamation was given a leading role in agricultural development
in Russia for its guaranteed contribution to the food production of the
country. The irrigated land area increased from 1.5 million ha in 1965
to 6.1 million in 1990. About 60% of lands of the total irrigated area
was irrigated by sprinkling with the use of subsurface on-farm irrigation
networks. According to the data for the years of 1986-1990, the share
of crop produce from irrigated lands in the total crop production amounted
to: 18-20% in Povolzhie, 24-30% in Northern Caucasia, and 5-8.2% in the
remaining dry regions.
In the overmoistened zone of Russia the most intensive agricultural drainage
construction was carried out in 1970s - 1980s. The area of drained lands
increased from 3.1 million ha in 1970 to 5.1 million ha in 1990, including
3.2 million ha with subsurface drainage.
However, the existing
irrigation systems and irrigated lands provide for sustainable crop production
in the Povolzhie, Northern Caucasian and Central regions for the productivity
level 2-3 times higher than in rainfed arable areas.
The Federal Law on
Land Reclamation was adopted in 1996 which differentiates the types of
property in irrigation and drainage systems and structures into: the state-owned
property (federal and regional) and the property of water users, that
serves as a basis for differentiation of responsibilities among the property
owners in the development of land reclamation. Soils.
The soil cover and soils of Russia feature considerable diversity depending
on natural conditions (climate, topography, soil-forming rocks, hydrogeology,
etc.)
3. Water Resources
Management
Water resource complex
is based on the river runoff that in normal years makes up 4262km3, 90%
of this amount is accounted for by the basins of the Arctic and Pacific
Oceans. However, over 80% of the population of Russia and its main industrial
and agricultural potential mostly lie in the basins of the Caspian and
the Sea of Azov, accounting for less than 8% of the total annual volume
of river runoff. The present operational groundwater resources in proved
deposits is equal to 28km3. The predicted potential groundwater resources
of Russia exceed 300km3 a year.
The role of water
in the life of the people is provided in the WATER CODE of Russian Federation
adopted by the State Duma in October 1995.
The intense use of
water resources, especially in the last 50 years, has led to deterioration
of their quality and even depletion, especially small rivers, and worsening
of the water management situation in most regions of Russia.
The water-consuming
complex is responsible for water withdrawal from water bodies and water
use in different branches of the national economy, where in the agriculture
is the most water-consuming branch except power generation. During 1991-1995,
the annual water withdrawal averaged 26km3 by agriculture including irrigation
and rural water supply; 36.5km3 of water by power generation plants; 2km3
by fuel industry; 3.1km3 by ferrous and non ferrous metallurgy; 2.8km3
by chemical industry; 4km3 by machine building industry; 13.1km3 by housing
facilities and public utilities, etc. In 1996 total water withdrawal in
Russia was 92.3 km3, of this, 79.4 km3 were withdrawn from surface water
sources and 12.9km3 from subsurface water sources.
History of irrigation
and drainage development in brief
Irrigation has very
old history in the territory of Russia. Beginning in the VI-XIII centuries,
irrigation was developed in arid zones of Povolzhie (the area of the Volga
River middle and lower reaches), Northern Caucasia, and the southwestern
part of Siberia, though, at that time, irrigation was of local character.
Heavy droughts in
14 years during the period of 1871-1921, usually resulted in hunger, contributed
to the development of irrigation in Russia. By 1917, 3.5 million ha of
lands were irrigated in the territory of the Soviet Union.
During 1879-1893,
pilot irrigation systems and ponds were constructed on governmental lands
in the Povolzhie. In addition, meteorological stations were put into service
and studies on irrigation efficiency were commenced. By 1940 an area of
20 thou ha of lands of Povolzhie was irrigated by 1965, 163 thou ha by
1990, the irrigated land area of Povolzhie exceeded 1.6 million ha.
4. Future Water
and Land Resources Development
Social and economic
transformations are taking place in Russia, like change in the organizational
and legal forms of the water users, introduction of the WATER CODE requiring
conceptions of the State Policy on the Use, Rehabilitation and Protection
of Water Bodies.
The Federal programme
is now under preparation. The improvement of water situation in the country
aim at guaranteed water supply to the population, economic production;
safe operation of hydrotechnical structures; reproduction, protection
and rational use of water resources and transformation of water relations
into the market conditions are among the cardinal measures envisaged in
the Federal programme “WATER for RUSSIA”.
The CONCEPT envisages
to go into operation in 2001-2010 when only 200 thou ha of new irrigated
and 180 thou ha of new drained lands are to be added with main attention
to reconstruction and rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems on
an area of 3.1 million ha and drainage systems in the overwetted zone
in an area of 1.9 million ha.
The rehabilitation,
reconstruction and modernization of irrigation and drainage systems aims
to solve the following problems:
- preservation of
the created irrigation and drainage potential of the country, maintaining
the contribution of irrigation and drainage in stabilization and development
of crop production and animal husbandry;
- improvement of
soil and hydrogeological condition of reclaimed lands and maintaining
them at the environmentally safe level; utilization of saline drainage
wastewaters;
- reduction of unproductive
irrigation water losses, use of water-saving technologies in irrigation;
- replacement of
worn out equipment with new one, modernization of sprinkling machines
with a view to reduce their weight and power consumption;
- adjustment of the
disposition of sown area and the system of crop rotation on irrigated
lands taking into account the availability of the agricultural enterprises
having different organizational and legal forms of management and types
of property, including individual peasant farms.
However, water resources
used for irrigation will make it possible to irrigate a total area of
20 million ha, including 5 million ha of existing irrigated lands. Out
of 15 million ha of lands, which can be irrigated after 2010, 4.3 million
ha are located in the European part of Russia. The area of new drained
lands in overwetted zone of Russia is likely to increase by 7-8 million
ha after the year 2010.
Research activities
Studies in the field
of land reclamation are conducted by institutes of Russian Academy of
Agricultural Sciences (fundamental studies) and scientific research institutes
of hydraulic engineering and land reclamation under the Ministry of Agriculture
and Food of the Russian Federation (applied studies). There are 14 state
research/land reclamation institutes. These institutes are located in
the south of Russia, Povolzhie, far east of the country as well as the
All-Russia Research Institute for Irrigation Systems and Technology RADUGA,
the Research Institute for Wastewater Utilization (PROGRESS), the Engineering
Centre for Technology and Application of Automatic Control systems in
Surveys, Designing and Construction and Reclamation Projects (LUCH). The
Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences involves three research land
reclamation institutes, viz. the All-Russia Research Institute of Hydraulic
Engineering and Land Reclamation (Moscow), the All-Russia Research Institute
of Agricultural Use of Reclaimed Lands (Tver).
5. Administration
and Financing of Irrigation and Drainage Schemes; Water-related Laws and
Policies
In the course of political
and economic reforms, the administration of irrigation and drainage schemes
and water resources management in Russia has undergone noticeable changes.
Before The USSR disintegration, the period of the most intense land reclamation
development from 1965 to 1991, the former Ministry of Land Reclamation
and Water Management of the USSR was responsible for administration of
irrigation and drainage schemes and water resources of the country. Similar
ministries in union and autonomous republics were under the jurisdiction
of this Ministry.
The Ministry of Natural
Resources of Russia is responsible for management of a water resources
complex; 12 inter-regional large river basin boards and 84 territorial
natural resources committees in the republics; territories and regions
are subordinated to the Ministry. The said committees are responsible
for water resources as well.
In 1998, the Federal
Law on Payment for Use of Water Sources elaborated by the Ministry of
Natural Resources was passed. The calculations show that the share of
payment for use of water sources in the cost value of industrial production
amounts to 0.5%. The power generation and its transmission amounts to
1%, while in the cost value of public services it reaches 2%. It is decided
that 50% of the amount of payments should be allocated to rehabilitation
and protection of water sources.
Russia and ICID
Russia joined ICID
in the year 1955 and ever since actively participated in the activities
of ICID. Mr. E.E. Alekseevsky (1972-1975) was the Past President and Mr.
A.N. Askochensky (1960-63), Mr. K.K. Shubladze (1966-69), Mr. B.G. Shtepa
(1977-80) and Dr. Georgi Georgievich Guluyk (2004-2007) were the past
Vice Presidents of ICID. Russian National Committee is actively represented
by 6 members in six workbodies of ICID. Presently, Dr. Georgi Georgievich
Guluyk is the Chairman of Russian National Committee of ICID.
Russian National Committee
hosted the 12th IEC meeting in Moscow in 1961, 26th IEC Meeting and 9th
Congress in Moscow in 1976 and 1st Afro-Asian Regional Conference at Tashkent
in 1976. The 54th IEC Meeting of ICID was held at Moscow in 2004.
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